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OVERVIEW
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The most ancient works of art found in Uzbekistan date back to the Mesolithic period, when a primeval painter drew a hunting scene in ruddle on the rocks of Zarautsai. He pictured animals and hunters in triangle-shaped cloaks schematically, in traditions of primitive realism. Apart from stone implements, the Late Stone Age is richly represented by everyday objects including hand-made pottery ornamented by nail imprints already at that early stage of culture.
The Bronze Age, embracing the 2nd and beginning of the 1st millennium BC, was marked in southern regions of the present-day Uzbekistan by the formation of a developed building technique, emergent methods of mass and monumental architecture, and progressing bronze-smelting and pottery-making.
A considerable number of artifacts belonging to farming tribes of the Bronze Age were unearthed and studied in the South of Uzbekistan. The greatest amount of research data has been obtained on the settlements of the 17th - 10th centuries BC: Sapallitepa and Djarkutan. Their archeological complexes provided enough material for studying the establishment and development of a proto-city civilization of an ancient Oriental type, which had ethno cultural contacts with tribes both in farming South and the livestock-breeding North.
At the end of the 2nd and the beginning of the 1st millennium BC Central Asia, including what is now Uzbekistan, was the site of major historical events. One the one hand, it was marked by an intensive progress made by steppe land tribes in livestock-breeding, and on the other - by the formation of seats of irrigated farming culture in small oases. At the time, there are formed and developed a number of historical and cultural regions, such as Bactria, Sogdiana, and Khorezm, followed by the formation of Bactrian, Sogdian and Khorezmian ethnos.
The first three centuries of the 1st millennium BC were marked by the appearance of iron implements and weapons (The Early Iron Age) and Sogdiana (that was how Greeks called Bacrtia and Sogda). When Macedonians reached Trans-Oxiana, i.e. regions located to the north of the Oxus river, now called the Amudarya, they confined their activities to building outposts and placing garrisons there. Hellenistic culture began to spread in this part of the world only after Alexander the Great had died and the Seleucids, who succeeded him, had been separated. By the middle of the 3rd century BC, local rulers, who emphasized their dissent from the Phil Hellenes, established themselves in Central Asia: Greco-Bactrian in Bactria and Arshakid - on the territory of the present-day South Turkmenistan. The involvement of Central Asian southern regions in broad international contacts introduced them to the summits of the Hellenic culture, shedding some of its light onto the neighboring northern regions - Sogdiana, Shash, Fergana and Khorezm.
Central Asian Antiquity (4th century BC - 4th century AD) is represented now by an exclusively rich variety of the works of art. Archeological excavations on the territory of contemporary Uzbekistan have discovered a number of big cities of that time: Dalverzin, Termez and Djandavlyattepa in Bactria, Afrasiab and Erkurgan in Sogdiana, Djanbaskala, Ayazkala and Toprakkala in Khorezm, as well as scores of smaller fortified settlements and hundreds of villages.
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Among those mentioned were the names of the regions that were situated on the territory of the present-day Uzbekistan: Bakhdi ( Bactria) - in the middle and upper Amudarya, Suguda (Sogdiana) - between the Kashkadarya, the Zerafshan and the Syrdarya rivers, and Hwarazmia (Khorezm) - in the lower Amudarya. In the the 6th century BC Bactria and Sogdiana were conquered by the Iranian dynasty of the Akheminids, and became their satrapies. This speeded up the process of initial urbanization in these regions which had begun earlier. Ancient Bactrian settlements Kiziltepa, Khoresmian settlements Kalalygyr and Kuzeligyr were urban formations, with characteristic fortress walls and moats, citadels, palaces and evidently, temples.
During the antique period, preference in monumental arts shifted from murals to sculpture. It is presented by marvelous specimens found on the lands of North Tokharistan and Khorezm.
Central Asian sculptors used clay, plaster and sometimes stone, but they preferred plastic clay, which local mountain foothills were rich in. Modeling was done in several layers, beginning with a clay-coated wooden or reed frame, and ending with a carefully done upper layer which was painted.
The antique period in the history of Uzbekistan is characterized by flourishing small-form arts: glyptic (gems intaglios and seals), coins, small terra-cotta sculpture and other handicrafts. Gems with engraved designs are wonderful creations of the antique art of Uzbekistan.
In the ancient society, gems were used as personal seals by high ranking persons in their correspondence or official papers. Meanwhile, gems are not only specimens of the glyptic art; they are source of data on mythology and religion, as they carry images of deities and divine symbols.
The antique epoch has left specimens of the art of medal-making with a striking power of realism and a high level of artistic execution. The Greco-Bactrian coins represent a vast gallery of portraits, sometimes subtly psychological, and sometimes rather rough, but always individual. Craftsmen endeavored not only convey the king's faces true to life, but also to express their qualities as human beings and politicians.
One of the richly represented crafts characteristic mostly of antique cities, was the terracotta sculpture. Its technology was similar to that of pottery, but at the same time, terracotta reflected the most characteristic features the plastic art in different historic-cultural regions. The author of the model could be both a sculptor and a potter. The further stages in producing and processing clay statuettes repeated the same operations as in pottery production.
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The most numerous categories of items found during archeological excavations on settlement sites and burial mounds, in ceramics. In framing oases, ceramics of the antique period, made on potter's wheel, is noted for its high quality, diversity and refined shapes.
A major place in the antique art was given to bone articles. Specimens showing a high level of bone carving, were represented either by figurines of people, animals and fruit, or engravings on various subjects on polished bone.
The 4th century marks the end of the antique period, but its rich cultural legacy was the fertile soil on which fine arts of subsequent period developed. In the Early Middle Ages craftsmen often turned to antique themes as to an endless source of creative experience and inspiration.
The early Middle Ages were marked by the downfall of large antique states: the Kushan Empire and the Kangul state, as well as mass incursions of nomads, such as Khidarites, Khionites and Ephtalites, into their territories. The Euphtalite state formed in Central Asia in the 4th-5th centuries AD, very large and strong, successfully rebuffed pressure from the Sassanid Persia at first. But in the 6th century it clashed with a powerful nomadic state in the North - the Turkic Khanate, which established control over Central Asia for a period of time. However, it was weakened by internal strife in the 7th century.
The country's feudalization that was taking place at that time, resulted in the formation of a number of semi-independent principalities, large and small, ruled by local dynasties, often subordinated to the Turkic Khanate only formally. Transit trade routes formed earlier, such as the Great Silk Road, began to change, branch off toward the North, into the zones of contact with nomads. The development of trade necessitated large coin emissions. The Central Asian market was flooded with coins of mint from Tocharistan, Sogdiana, Ustrushana, Chach, as well as Sassanide Iran, Byzanite, Turkic and Chinese coins.
Like in the preceding antique period, monumental art in that epoch was characterized by the blending of architectural decor with wall-painting and sculpture. Wall painting was widely spread as interior decoration. Interiors of secular buildings of the 6th-8th centuries were decorated with wood, stucco and rarely, clay-carving. The surviving wood-carved specimens testify to the high level of development of this art, which worked out its own canons, both in portraying living begins and in ornaments.
The Early Middle Ages witnessed the nascent triumph of stucco-carving. Its earliest specimens show a departure from antique traditions and the emergence of an entirely new style.
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Along with monumental arts, the Early Middle Ages saw the flourishing of all kinds of applied and decorative arts, boosted by specialization of craftsmen and improvement of their skills, as well as by their acquaintance with cultural values of neighboring countries.
Articles and utensils made of gold, silver and non-ferrous metals were in abundance. They were made by toreutic craftsmen and displayed signs of different schools.
In the Early Middle Ages, fabric-weaving turned into a well developed craft in Central Asia regions. Along with the production of woolen and cotton fabrics, widely used for making garments, silk began to be spun. The secret of silk spinning ceased to be China's prerogative. Silk worms began to be bred in Sogdiana, Tokharistan, Fergana and other regions. Silk spinning and production of silk fabrics began to be set up everywhere in these areas.
The rapid development of arts in Sogdiana, Tokharistan, Chach, Fergana and Khorezm was interrupted by the Arab conquest in the 7th - 8th centuries, which brought along an alien religion, Islam. Islamic dogmas imposed onto local peoples, eliminated everything in the fine arts connected with representing scenes from life, and channeled them mostly into ornamental and decorative style.
After a long fight against the Arab conquest, Central Asia became part of the state of Taharids and then the Samanids under the auspices of Arab Caliphate. Its capital was Bukhara (9th - 10th centuries).
The strengthening of central authority promoted an economic upsurge in the country. The mining of precious and non - ferrous metals boosted the development of the art of jewelry. Pottery-making and glass-blowing were also developed well. Close contacts with nomadic tribes provided raw materials for fabric and carpet weaving, and leather tanning.
The expansion of trade contacts resulted in cultural integration on a vast territory from Central Asia to the near and Middle East. The new ideology, Islam, played a certain role in drawing various cultures closer together. Recognizing no boundaries between religious and secular functions, it penetrated into all spheres of state authority and economy, science and engineering. The Arabic, and later the Persian language made scientific and cultural achievements accessible to scholars in the vast Euro-Asian region. That was why Central Asian art and architecture, though maintaining their traditions, joined the single stream of culture of the Arab Caliphate. That process caused tremendous changes in all fields of public and cultural life.
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At the turn of 11th century, the state of the Samanids fell under the rule of new dynasties: the Gaznevids - to the south of the Amudarya river, and the Karakhanids - to the north. Very soon, the Karakhanid state split into the Eastern and Western Khanates, with Samarkand as its capital of the latter. At the end of 11th century the Karakhanids were overridden by the Seljukids and then - by Karakhitais (or Khitans), a people of Mongolian extraction who came from the Far East. Eventually, the Anushtenginids, rulers of Khorezm, who became stronger in the 12th century, subordinated the entire Central Asia in the early 13th century. In contrast to the Samanids, who were Tajik origin, the subsequent dynasties, with the exception of Khitans, were Turcic.
So, the period from the 11th till the early 13th century was a politically unstable period in Central Asia, full of endless wars. Nevertheless, cities were growing rapidly, and trade, crafts, economy and culture were developing further. Architecture scored major successes, especially in the field of decor.
On the whole, The Central Asian art of that period was characterized by the emergence of a number of new features and trends. Probably, some of them were connected with the increasing role of the Turks, and the absorption of some patterns and ideas, borrowed from them, for instance, zoomorphic themes.
The Mongolian and Tatar invasion at the beginning of the 13th century impeded cultural development in Central Asia. It was only at the end of the century, when its destructive consequences were overcome and economy restored, that construction, crafts and trade began to develop further.
A special role was played by Khorezm, though which lay the main trade and political route that connected the Volga regions conquered by the Golden Horde with Central Asia. The capital of Khorezm, Urgench (known today as the Kunya-Urgench settlement site in Turkmenistan), was thriving. Its own architectural school which left several masterpieces was formed then.
The last quarter of the 14th century was marked by a sudden upsurge in the political and cultural life of Mawarannahr. That was the time when Tamerlane (Amir Timur) was making his swift ascent on the political arena. By conquering vast territories, he created a great empire stretching from Syria and Iraq to North India. From all over that empire, countless riches and thousands of skilful craftsmen were pouring into Central Asia. Thanks to cooperation of this wealth of creative forces, Central Asian culture soared to unprecedented heights at the expense of sack and pillage of many countries and regions. Grandiose construction was carried out in Mawarannahr cities: Samarkand, Shakhrisabz and Bukhara, on a scale never known in the Middle East.
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From Tamerlane's epoch, creative activities extended into the first half of the 15th century, the period of rule of his learned grandson Ulugbek. It was followed by a gradual abatement, as the center of political and cultural life shifted from Samarkand to Heart. But the creative thought lived on. Though construction work shrank considerably, the second half of the 15th century was marked by certain progress in that field, and in the field of architectural decor.
Crafts achieved a high degree of perfection during the period of the Timurids. A Spanish ambassador Ruy Gonzales de Clavio, who visited Samarkand during the rule of Tamerlane, described felt covers and carpets in festive tents and marquees, which struck him by their richness and diversity of patterns. We can judge about them only form from representations on miniatures. Among the surviving objects or art of the Timurid period we can name copper-chased articles, ceramics, and rich manuscripts, decorated by calligraphers, miniature painters, illustrators and book binders.
After downfall of Timurid dynasty, torn apart by contradictions and internal strife, the great achievements of that culture were taken in and developed by the subsequent stage in Central Asian history.
During the period of great geographical discoveries, when the sea communication routes were established between East and West, Central Asia ceased to play its formerly important role in trans-continental trade contacts. At the turn of the 16th century, nomadic Uzbek tribes invaded Mawarannahr. The relatively easy and bloodless conquest was only a political consequence of a deep socio-economic crisis in the former Timurid Empire. The change of dynasties and the country's unification seemed to have given fresh impetus to the development of economy, culture and arts in the 16th - 17th centuries. But it was only a suspension of the tendency toward further decline.
In the field of ideology, the most conservative religious forms were gaining a firm foothold. In architecture, the pompous forms of the Timurid epoch gave the way to simpler and cheaper constructions. Specimens are provided by the Kalyan Mosque and Abdulazizkhan Madrasah in Bukhara, the Sheibanikhan, the Mihr-Sultankhanym, the Shir-Dor and Tylla - Kari Madrasahs in Samarkand.
Central Asian architecture of the 16th - 17th centuries not only absorbed the achievements of the preceding centuries, but also deepened them considerably, solving complex ploblems in conditions of an economic slump.
The 18th century was a period of an acute social, economic and cultural crisis in the entire Central Asia. This land was painfully entered the New Times. That opened another chapter in local arts, not represented at this web page.
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