History of Uzbekistan: From primitive to ancient states
The current territory of the republic of Uzbekistan is one of the seats of an active primitive settlement. The traces of primeval humans in the form of primitive labor instruments, habitation, and temporary settlements are found in various zones ranging from mountain tracts and sands of the Kyzyl Kum deserts.
The remains of the Paleolithic (about from 700-600 until 12000 years B.C.), Mesolithic (12000 - 5000 B.C.), Neolithic (6000 - 4000 B.C.), and Bronze Age (3000 - beginning 1000 B.C.) periods found in many parts of the territory of Uzbekistan.
The Teshiktosh cave was discovered in Surkhandarya province in 1938. Besides the remains of a fireplace, animal bones, and work tools, the scientists also discovered a Neanderthal boy's burial place alongside the horns of a mountain goat, which served as evidence of some kind of spiritual existence, and probably, religious views of primitive men.
The remains of the early Stone age on the territory of Uzbekistan date back to eight to six centures B.C. in the ancient provinces such as Bactria, Khorezm, Shosh, and Fergana Valley.
During the second half of 1000 B.C. the ancient regions of Bactria, Khorezm and Sogdiana saw the invaision on the part of the Achaemenid tsars, and were further annexed to their huge empire as eastern provinces.
During that period, town planning, fortification, architecture and various handicrafts were developed. The first caravan roads were laid, which later whould become the main pathways for the Great Silk Road.
History of Uzbekistan: Alexander the Great
In the 4th century B.C., the Empire of Alexander the Great came to the scene of the world history.
In the late 330 B.C. Alexander captured Bactria's capital, town of Bactri. However, Alexander's troops ran against fierce opposition on the part of the unified troops led by a talented Sogdian called Spitamen. Raging fierce attacks on the defense, Alexander managed to move forward and captured Samarkand, the capital of Sogdiana. In late 328 B.C., by way of grafting the local elite, military tricks, and betrayal, he succeeded to stifle the rebellion in Bactria and Sogdiana, leading to the death of Spitamen.
The invasion brought tough ordeals, death and destruction to towns and settlements, it broke the economy as whole, trade, and cultural life of Bactria, Sogdiana, and Khorezm.
But at the same time, it should be underscored, that creation of the "world empire" by Alexandr the Great in one way or another led to the prospering of trade and cultural relations between the countries that were part of that empire. The war also brought Greek and Macedonian merchants. The recovery of Greek coins in Central Asia serves as a witness to active trade relations that existed in the region. Nevertheless, it did not last long. Following the death of Alexander in June 13, 323 B.C., the local provinces of a one huge empire, moved along the path of gaining political independence.
History of Uzbekistan: Kushan Kingdom and Kangyui state
The Kushan Kingdom emerged as one of the powerful states in 1000 B.C. The peak of its rise the kingdom has seen late 1st century A.D. - beginning 2nd century A.D., when it comprised of the territories of present day Northern India, Pakistan, Afganistan, Tajikistan, and the southern provinces of Uzbekistan. One of the most renowned rulers of the kingdom was Kanishka. One of the significant events of the rule by Kanishka was a declaration of Bactrian language and writing as official in the kingdom. From that time on, writing on coins followed in Bactrian, but not in Greek or Indian languages.
The tow of Termez became one of the largest trade and cultural centers of the Kushan kingdom. Buddhist religious complexes were erected along the suburbs of town such as Koratepa, Chingiztepa, Fayoztepa, Zurmala, and others. Many samples, recovered from various settlements in the area, serve witness to the aforementioned.
By the time, rapid growth in trade was also observed, for example, between East and West along the well-established and safeguarded route of the Great Silk Road. The caravans carried silk, fur, varnished items, and many other things from China to the west. Trade with the Roman Empire also increased. The Roman made items, discovered on the territory of former Bactria and Sogdians, serve witness to it.
The 3rd century the Kushan Empire began to face its gradual downfall, and suffered a number of defeats from the Sassanid monarchies. By the 4th century, the empire no longer exists.
Unlike the southern regions, the establishment of political units in the north of Uzbekistan began much later - the second half of 1000 B.C.
The state formation, namely Kangyui, is traced back to the 4th and 3rd centuries B.C. The state is reported to have been located on the territory of north Central Asia, Tashkent oasis, and Talas valley. The documentary evidence also reveals that the state had a large, well-trained army, which successfully withstood several enemy campaigns. In population mainly consisted of Turkic speaking tribes. Some historians say thet the new Turkic population and languge was composed during that period.
In the 2nd century B.C. Fergana (Dawan) became a powerful sovereign state. The Chinese Han rulers on a number of occasions failed to capture it. Despite numerous Chinese armies, Fergana was never captured. The town of Gushan (now Uzgen) served as a capital for the state. The incursions into the state by the Ephtalites put the sovereignty of Fergana to the end.
History of Uzbekistan: Turkic Kaganate
In the 6th century, various tribes and peoples of Altai, the area of Seven rivers, and Central Asia joined together in the Turkic Kaganate. In the early 7th century, the kaganate broke up into Western and Eastern parts.
The towns of Samarkand, Bukhara, Paykend, Termez, and a number of others in Khorezm and Chahc are thought to have turned into centers of international trade in 6th and 7th century.
The cotton growing, gardening, and viticulture was widely practiced in agricultural areas of kaganate. The silkworm breeding, brought from China in the 5th century, and local weaving is revealed to have prospered in Fergana.
The prevailing religions of farmers were Zoroastrism and Buddhism. The majority of the populations both wrote and spoke Khorezm and Sogdian languages. The remains of various writings, including those on religious matters - Buddist, Manichean, and Christian, are in the Sogdian language and alphabet, and witness to the cultural links maintained with India, Iran and Syria.
The late 7th century saw the disintegration of the Western Turkic Kaganate into small city-states.
History of Uzbekistan: Arabs
In the 7th and early 8th centuries the Arabs conquered Central Asia. The politil split and civil war that reigned in Central Asia at that time in one way or another made it easier for Arabs conquest. The early 8th century saw the all-out invasions of the region led by the Arab commander and Governer General of Khorasan, Kutaiba ibn Muslim (705-715). Taking advantage of the internal split, Kutaiba was quick to capture Tokhariston, and the area on the right bank of the Amu Darya. In 705 arabs moved further north - the area between two riwers. Under the Abbasid caliphs of Baghdad, the Arabian influence became dominant in the oasis cities of Central Asia.
The Sogdian revolt lasted for 10 years with participation of many of the local people. Thus, the entrie region was engulfed with an anti-Arab march. A brave man of Central Asia, Mukanna, led one such rigorous revolt against the Arab rule. His movement has been named as "men in white". The war for freedom lasted fo more that ten years and shook the powerful Arab caliphate.
In the early 9th century the rule of the Arab caliphate on its territories began to gradually diminish. Thereafter, sovereign states started to emerged in the region, led by local dynasties.
History of Uzbekistan: Samanids dynasty
In the 9th century, the Samanids dynasty (819-999) gained full independence from the Arab caliphs, and spread its own rule from northern slope of Tian Shan to Gindikush and Syr Darya steppes to the Persian Gulf.
The cities of Central Asia - large trade and cultural centers of their time - rose and prospered. The mosques and madrasah were erected in many places such as Bukhara, Balkh, Samarkand, Termez and others. Also, these cities became scientific centers, where the renowned scholars of the Orient such as Dakyky, Beruniy, Avicenna, Faraby, and others lived and researched.
Ismail Samani erected this marvelous Mausoleum over his father's grave. This has been testified by the archeological excavations held in 1926-1928. It has been established that there were several graves inside the Mausoleum, and the grave of Ismail himself was situated aside at the entrance. Next to him his son and grandson were buried.
In the second half of the 10th century the Samanid dynasty entered its phase of shake-ups taking place due to separatist moves on the part of local rulers. Thus, the support of the local elite towards Samanids rule began to gradually diminish, leading to its full dissolution.
History of Uzbekistan: Karakhanids and Gengiz Khan
In 999 the Ghaznavis and Karakhanids established their reign in the region. The latter subdued the vast territories stretching from inside district of China to the Amu Darya River.
Within the Karakhanid Kingdom, the settled and semi-nomadic population used to prevail in Khorezm and Tashkent oases, Fergana, and partly on the territory of ancient Sogdiana.
By the early 13th century, Khorezm became one of the largest states in the East. Irrigation prospered and the number of big cities rose in the state. Its capital - Kokhna Urgench was famous for its handicraft industry. However, the internal class was weakened the state sufficiently enough, leading to the invasions by the Mongols led by Genghis Khan.
By 1221, the whole of Central Asia fell to the reign of Genghis Khan. Cities were destroyed, irrigation systems crushed, hundreds of thousands of people were killed and taken prisoner of war.
Following the death of Genghis Khan in 1227, Central Asia along with the area of Seven Rivers, and Eastern Turkestan made up the so-called ulus, or the land possessions ruled by the sovereign. As such, was appointed the second son of Genghis Khan, Chagatai, but the ulus was actually led by Makhmud Yalavach.
History of Uzbekistan: Amir Temur
The decade of the 40s of the 14th century saw the disintegration of the Chagatai ulus into several states. The split and internal wars became worse and crueler. Taking in advantage of the situation, in the second half of the 14th century, the great Amir Temur (Tamerlane) came on the scene (1336 - 1405).
Timur was born in the village of Khodja-Ilgar, near Shahrisabs. He was the son of Emir Taragay, who was from Barlos tribes. Since his teenager hood Timur knew much about military training and took part in civil wars.
Having joined the divided territories of Central Asia, Amir Temur created a powerful state with its capital in Samarkand.
In 1380 Amir Temur launched military campaigns to other countries. As a result, Iran, Trans-Caucasus, Iraq, Syria, Turkey, Northern India, and others were conquered.
Amir Temur governed the vast country through his sons, grandsons, and confidants by appointing them as rulers in different regions and countries.
The establishment of a centralized country in the region paved the way for the development of economy broken apart by the rule of Mongols. The living standards of the people were on the rise. Samarkand, especially, changed for the better very much. Talented artists, architects, and scholars from various countries worked and lived in the capital. The city became a unique center for cultural and scientific development the dictated the fashion in art, handicraft, architecture, poetry, literature, music, and celebration of festivals and performances.
Thanks to his political power and goals, Amir Temur revived and improved the institutions of state, as well as social and military administration.
Following the death of Amir Temur, his state broke up into two. The one is Khorosan with center in Heart led by his son, Shokhrukh, and another - Movaraunnahr (the Arabic name of the territory between the Amu-Darya and Syr-Darya rivers in Central Asia since the 7th century A.D.) with its center in Samarkand, and led by Shokhrukh's son - Ulugbek, as well as other small areas, also ruled by the Temur descendants.
History of Uzbekistan: Ulugbek and Bobur
Ulugbek (Muhammad Taragai) was born in 1394 in Sultania. His father was great Timur's son Shahruh, his mother was Gavharshodbegim. When he was 15 years old he became the ruler of Samarkand. When he was 17 he became the ruler of Mavara-Un-Nahr and he ruled the state for 40 years. Really it was very difficult for him to combine the state affairs with science and Ulugbek realized it only after his defeat by Barakhan.
Ulugbek known as a great medieval scientist-astronomer, both organizer and patron of science and the arts.
At that time great scholars lived in Samarkand, where an observatory was put in place, thus turning the city into a center for scientific thought. Movaraunnahr became powerful and strong state. But a lot of his emirs didn't support Ulugbek's policy and they tried to plunder the state treasure, to begin the war between cousins and between the father and the son. Historians of Ulugbek's time wrote that Ulugbek had been beheaded by his own son's decree at a spot some ten or twelve miles from Samarkand. After the tragic death of Ulugbek in 1449, both Khorasan and Movaraunnahr broke up into sovereign territories. Movaraunnahr was now to be ruled by the counselor of Temur rulers, Shaykh Ubaydulah Khoja Akhror.
While Samarkand was taken over by both economic and cultural depression, Heart at the same time saw a comparatively higher level of development. It was due significantly to the enormous work by the chief minister at Sultan Husseyn's court - Alisher Navoi, the poet and scholar. He patronized the people of art and science, administered the construction of madrasah, public buildings, canals, and bridges.
In 1494 at the age of eleven, Zahir-Iddin Bobur succeeded his father, Sultan Mirza, as a ruler of the small state of Fergana.
Zahir-Iddin Bobur (1483-1530) founder of the great Mogul dynasty in India, was a Barlos Turk descended on the male side from Timur and on the female side from Chagatai Khan (son of Genghis Khan, the great Mongol scourge of Asia).
From 1494 to 1504 he vainly endeavored to maintain his position in Fergana, but he was expelled by more powerful neighbors and eventually sought refuge in the mountain fortresses of Kabul, which became his headquarters until 1525.
Political conditions in India contributed to the success of his plans. At his death in 1530 he controlled the greater part of Northern India.
History of Uzbekistan: Bukhara, Khiva and Kokand khanates
In 1499 the nomadic tribes from the north - the Kipchak steppes - led by Shaybanikhan invaded Movaraunnahr thus putting to an end the rule of Temur dynasty in Central Asia. The nomadic tribes that came over as a result of invasion gradually assimilated with the local population of the region. Furthermore, Bukhara took over the status of Samarkand as an economic and cultural center, and the rule of newcomers was to be referred to as the Bukhara khanate.
In the early 18th century, the Fergana Valley separated from the khanate. Thereafter, another sovereign state - the Kokand khanate, was founded in the southeast of the region.
In 1505, armies led by Shaybanikhan captured Khorezm, but in 1512 the rule was taken over by another dynasty, which did not join hands with the former. From that time on, the Khiva khanate was founded with its capital located either in towns of Vazir, Old Urgench, or Khiva.
In the early 19th century, the Kokand khanate became one of the largest of its time. The khanate was famous for its cotton and silk materials. The city of Kokand turned into a center of production of writing paper.
History of Uzbekistan: From Russians to present
By the middle of the 19th century, the territory of Central Asia considered to be an important economic region, which was the reason for tsarist Russia to map the all-out invasion of the khanates in the region.
In this regard, at the first Russia paid a significant attention to capturing vitally strategic targets of Kokand khanate. Despite fierce and brave opposition on the part of the local population, in 1853 Russian troops captured the fortress of Okmachit, the so-called gates leading to Uzbek khanates. In 1865 Tashkent were captured. Later on, Tashkent has been made a capital of the newly established Turkestan oblast (province, region), and further in 1867 - center of the Turkestan General Governance.
In 1866 Russian troops moved further deep into the territory os the Central Asia towards the premises of the Bukhara khanate. As an outcome of the unfairly signed agreement between the parties, the Bukhara khanate paid huge reparations to tsarist Russia and turned into its protectorate.
Russian military campaign of 1873 to Khiva has also ended with enormous success for the Russian army. As a result, Khiva khanate has lost its sovereignty, as well.
Henceforth, the territory of the contemporary Uzbekistan had been turned into the colony of tsarist Russia. In the sphere of agriculture, the Russian government envisaged two main goals: first - to consolidate its rule in Central Asia, and then - exploit its economic potentials for the benefit of the ruling class in Russia.
The economic policy conducted by the empire in Turkestan was aimed at turning it into a raw base, kept it as a market for realization of Russian goods, and finally, to exploit mineral resources of the area.
From November 1917 to March 1918, the Soviet rule was declared in the region. Thus, in 1920 the Khorezm and Bukhara people's Soviet republics were set up.
Following the national and state demarcation in Central Asia, in 1924 the Uzbek SSR was organized, and un 1925 it joined the USSR as a new republic of the Union.
On August 31, 1991 the Uzbekistan declared the independence, a great event in the centuries-long history of Uzbek people.
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